Description
This collection would be great for anyone who is trying to learn the music theory, and it's important for any musician.
This book is licensed under a Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/ 3.0/) license. This book was accessible as of December 29, 2012, and it was downloaded then by Andy Schmitz (http://lardbucket.org) in an effort to preserve the availability of this book.
Study Set Content:
Figure 1.30
Three-Pattern
All conducting figures by Michael Paolantonio
The Basic Four-Pattern: any simple or compound quadruple time signature. Think
“down-across-away-up…”
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
35
Figure 1.31
Four-Pattern
All conducting figures by Michael Paolantonio
The One-Pattern: depending upon tempo, triple meters may be conducted “in one.”
Refer to
Section 1.2 "Pulse, Tempo, and Meter"
.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
36
Figure 1.32
One-Pattern
All conducting figures by Michael Paolantonio
The Basic Six-Pattern:
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
37
Figure 1.33
Six-Pattern
All conducting figures by Michael Paolantonio
Repeats and Endings
Numerous expedient shortcuts evolved to facilitate writing music efficiently, as
well as eliminating the redundancy of writing a given passage over again. Specific
symbols, called
repeat signs
9
or
repeats
, came into use whereby a composer could
indicate the repetition of a measure, a group of measures, or an entire passage.
Figure 1.34
Repeats, Measure Repeats, Section Repeats
9. Special symbols indicating that
segments of the music
previously performed are to be
repeated.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
38
A repeated section might end differently than its first iteration: the repeated
section might end differently or it might make a transition to a new section.
Composers employ “First and Second Endings” to serve this function.
Figure 1.35
First and Second Endings
A passage repeated multiple times is so indicated by listing the number of
repetitions in the first ending. In Jazz notation and vernacular music, this may be
accompanied by an instruction at the beginning of the passage that indicates the
number of iterations, for example,
3x’s
, meaning “repeat this passage three times.”
Figure 1.36
Multiple Endings
At times in a composition, it is desirable or necessary to repeat an entire earlier
passage, or return to the beginning of the piece. Rather than re-write the particular
passage, specific notational expedients evolved to accommodate this. These
shortcuts employed Italian phrases, accompanied by specific symbols. These phases
and symbols are directions to the performer as to what segment is repeated and
how to conclude the piece.
1.
Da Capo
(“from the head…”): return to the beginning of the piece.
Abbreviated as
D.C.
2.
Dal Segno
(“from the sign…”): return to the “sign.” Abbreviated as
D.S.
The
segno
is a special symbol, shown in
Figure 1.37 "D.C. al Fine, D.S. al
.
3. …
al Fine
(“to the finish”): Most often used in conjunction with
Da Capo
,
the word
Fine
appears above the music at the point which tells the
performer to end the piece.
4. …
Al Coda
(“ to the tail”): Most often used in conjunction with
Dal Segno
,
this symbol (see
Figure 1.37 "D.C. al Fine, D.S. al Coda"
performer to “jump” to a final, separate, concluding section of the
piece.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
39
Figure 1.37
D.C. al Fine, D.S. al Coda
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
The student should be able to define and understand:
• Measures and Bar lines.
• Basic Conducting Patterns
• Repeats
• D.C. al Fine, D.S. al Coda
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
40
E X E R C I S E S
1. Using a metronome to provide a background pulse, practice conducting
patterns in 2, 3, 4, 6. Vary the tempo.
2. Incomplete rhythms are given in each of the following measures.
Add the appropriate durational value to complete the measure.
See example.
Figure 1.38
Incomplete Measures
3. For each of the following examples write in the missing time
signature and label the meter type.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
41
Figure 1.39
Identify Meter
4. In each example below using “roadmaps”, draw arrows to
indicate what segment is repeated and how the segment
concludes. See example.
Figure 1.40
“Roadmaps”
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.3 Music Notation Practices
42
1.4 Additional Information
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Slurs, phrase markings and ties.
2. Dynamics and common articulations.
3. Artificial division (“tuplets”).
4. Syncopation
5. Introduction to Asymmetrical Meter
Slurs, Phrase Markings and Ties
Curves lines have several uses in music notation. Curves lines may be drawn above
or below segments of a composition (
slurs
or
phrase markings
). A curved line may
also connect two note values across a bar-line (
ties
).
1. A
slur
10
is a performance indication in music, used to instruct the
performer to connect those notes encompassed by the slur. A wind
player will not articulate (“tongue”) these notes, a string player will
play them all in one bow stroke, a pianist will strive to connect the
notes fluidly.
Figure 1.41
Slurs
Slurs should be drawn connecting or encompassing note-heads. A
common mistake by students is to draw slurs connecting stems. The
exception to this general practice occurs when a slur is drawn over
note stems that change direction. (See measure 1 of
.)
2. A
phrase marking
11
is also a performance indication. A composer will
encase a passage of music within a phrase marking to indicate a
complete idea, a complete musical statement. This does not have any
effect upon articulation: many times slurs may be found within the
bounds of a phrase marking. Phrase markings are placed above the
staff.
10. Slurs are curved lines above or
below notes showing
connection.
11. Phrase markings are curved
lines over segments of music
showing complete ideas or
statements.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
43
Figure 1.42
Phrase Markings
3. At times a durational value exceeds the bounds of a measure in a given
time signature: the note value occupies more “beats” than the measure
will allow. To accommodate this, we use a
tie
12
, a short curved line
connecting one durational value to another in the succeeding measure.
Figure 1.43
Ties
Dynamic Markings and Articulations
Dynamic markings indicate relative degrees of volume in a composition or a
passage of music. Articulations are common symbols (and their associated terms)
directing how notes are performed. These are listed in
with other common musical terms.
The basic dynamic markings are:
1.
pianissimo
: very “soft” (quiet)
2.
piano
: “soft”
3.
mezzo-piano
: medium “soft”
4.
mezzo-forte
: medium “strong” or loud
5.
forte
: strong or loud
6.
fortissimo
: very strong or loud
Some composers expand this range, adding dynamic markings using three or four
“p’s” or three or four “f’s.”
Figure 1.44
Basic Dynamic Markings
12. A tie is a short slur used to
connect notes across a bar line.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
44
Composers employ special markings that serve as performance “indicators,”
denoting how notes are to be performed. Those commonly used are listed below.
1.
Staccato
: originally interpreted as “half the written value,” it has come
to mean “detached” (not necessarily “short”).
Figure 1.45
Staccato Examples
2.
Legato
: properly
Tenuto
(“held”), meaning held to full value and
implying connection to the following note value.
Figure 1.46
Legato Examples
3.
Marcato
: (“marked”), accented.
Figure 1.47
Marcato Examples
4.
Marcatisimo
: heavily accented.
Figure 1.48
Marcatissimo Examples
5.
Martelé
: in writing for strings, this marking is used to denote a very
heavy accent, heavy bow pressure being achieved by the use of
“downbow.”
Figure 1.49
Martelé Examples
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
45
Artificial Divisions
Review the fundamental attributes defining simple and compound meter. Simple
meter divides the fundamental pulse into two portions, compound meter into three.
At times it is desirable (or necessary) to insert a compound division into simple
time, or a simple division into compound time. This process is called
artificial
division
13
, commonly called
tuplets
.
In a simple meter, inserting a compound division (artificially dividing the beat into
three equal portions) is called a
triplet
and is written thus:
Figure 1.50
Triplets in Simple Meter
Conversely, inserting a simple division into a compound meter (artificially dividing
the beat unto two equal portions) is called a duplet, and is written thus:
Figure 1.51
Duplets in Compound Meter
A triplet may occur across multiple beats in Simple Meter, called a
super-triplet
. In
Compound Meter, a larger tuplet across multiple beats may occur.
Figure 1.52
Super-triplet, Tuplet
Composers have employed many other
tuplet
figures, inserting larger artificial
divisions within beats or groups of beats.
Figure 1.53
Examples of Larger Tuplets
13. Inserting a compound division
into simple time (triplets) or
simple divisions into
compound time (duplet).
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
46
Artificial division is used as a process for making rigid time and beat division much
more fluid and irregular. This technique is especially prevalent in music from the
19th Century onwards.
Syncopation
Syncopation is another common rhythmic device. The simplest definition of
syncopation is:
1. An arrangement of durational values that places accents or “stress”
where it is unexpected.
2. This translates to “accents on the off-beats” (or weak beats).”
3. Originating as a rhythmic device in early music, it has become an
especially prevalent attribute of music after 1900.
4. Syncopation does occur in certain contexts throughout the evolution
of Western music.
Here are some typical rhythmic patterns demonstrating this device:
Figure 1.54
Examples of Syncopation Patterns
Asymmetrical Meter
Asymmetrical meter has become a very common device in the composer’s arsenal.
Often called “Odd-meters” (a slang term) because the top number of such time
signatures is an “odd number,” these are time signatures that mix simple and
compound beats within a measure or pulse grouping. Common examples are:
Triple meters and their multiples are not included in this category generally. Often
these meters are treated in the same manner that we treat compound meters, that
is, the written time signature represents First Division. So, for example,
5
8
might be
grouped as two eighth notes plus three eighth notes or the reverse.
5
16
5
8
5
4
7
16
7
8
7
4
11
16
11
8
11
4
13
16
13
8
13
4
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
47
Figure 1.55
Division Groupings
A seven-meter might be grouped 2+2+3, 3+2+2, or 2+3+2, and so forth for other
asymmetrical meters. It is possible to construct asymmetrical divisions from typical
meters by irregular groupings. For example,
Figure 1.56
Other Meters and Sample Groupings
Until the 20th Century, there were relatively few examples of asymmetrical meter
in the literature. A notable exception is the second movement of Tchaikovsky’s
Sixth Symphony (
Páthetique
) (in 5).
Symphony No. 6, II
See this link:
http://imslp.org/wiki/Symphony_No.6,_Op.74_(Tchaikovsky,_Pyotr_Ilyich)
Asymmetrical meter is a hallmark of 20th- and 21st-century music, in both classical
and vernacular genre. Composers freely employed asymmetrical meters for entire
8
8 might be grouped as 3 + 3 + 2
5
8 might be grouped as 3 + 2 + 2 + 2
10
5 might be grouped as 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 and so forth
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
48
segments and pieces or employed them incidentally as context demanded.
Examples that come readily to mind include:
• “Money,” Pink Floyd (
Dark Side of the Moon
) in 7 (4+3);
• “Solesbury Hill,” Peter Gabriel, mostly in 7 (4+3);
• “Back in New York City,” Genesis (
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway
),
again mostly in 7 (2+2+3);
• The wonderful compositions and arrangements by the legendary Jazz
artist Hank Levy;
• Béla Bartók,
Concerto for Orchestra
, IV,
Intermezzo
, simple duple
alternating with 5;
• Igor Stravinsky, the closing passage of
L’Oiseau de feu
(
The Firebird
),
Le
Sacre du Printemps
• (
The Rite of Spring
);
There are many other examples.
It became customary for 20th-century composers to mix asymmetrical meters as
needed, their use dictated by phrasing, text rhythm, and so forth. Concluding our
discussion of rhythm, we are fully prepared to enter the realm of pitch in the next
chapter.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
The student should understand:
• Uses of the slur (phrase marking, tie).
• Basic dynamics and basic articulations.
• Syncopation.
• Asymmetrical meters.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
49
E X E R C I S E S
1. List the six basic dynamics markings and give their relative volumes.
2. Using the Time Signature Table, graph the following
asymmetrical meters. List each written time signature in the
First Division row, sum to find component Pulses, then provide
one level of Subdivision.
a.
5
16
Pulse
First Division
Subdivisions
b.
5
8
Pulse
First Division
Subdivisions
c.
7
8
Pulse
First Division
Subdivisions
d.
11
8
Pulse
First Division
Subdivisions
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
50
3. List three possible division groupings for each of the following
time signatures:
See example.
Figure 1.57
Asymmetrical Division Groupings
4. Sum the divisions you’ve created in order to determine pulse
values. See example.
7
8
9
8
10
8
10
8
11
8
13
8
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
51
Figure 1.58
Asymmetrical Pulse Values
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
1.4 Additional Information
52
1.5 Summary
This chapter serves as a detailed survey to those elements of music that represent
time and how it is symbolized. Unlike the Plastic Arts (painting, sculpture), music is
not a temporally fixed entity: it exists in its own time, calculated by the progression
of rhythm and meter across a compositionally predetermined time span.
An intimate and close understanding of rhythm and its attributes is the first
essential skill any musician must acquire. From performance through analysis,
aspects of rhythmic organization permeate the entire range of all skill-sets that
serves as the basis for becoming a competent, literate, functional musician.
The next chapter will discuss the other half of this equation: pitch and its
attributes. These skill-sets, in tandem with rhythm, will prepare the student for
exploring first the grammar, then the syntax of the musical language.
Chapter 1 The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time
53
Chapter 2
The Elements of Pitch:Sound, Symbol, and Tone
Introduction
In
Chapter 1 "The Elements of Rhythm: Sound, Symbol, and Time"
we discovered
how music is organized temporally and how that temporal organization is
symbolized in written notation. Aspects of rhythm and rhythmic notation, meter,
and basic formal organization were discussed.
In this chapter we shall explore how tone is represented in music. In early music
sound or tone was not precisely notated. Rather, a system of mnemonic symbols
called
neumes
gave only an approximate indication of where tones sounded in
relationship to one another in terms of relative highness or lowness. Many notation
traditions and practices evolved in early Western music: there was no uniform
practice as to how sound in music was notated.
From this early use as a memory device, notational practice evolved over time
toward a standardized system of notation and, more importantly, toward an exact
system of tone placement.
Musicologists credit Guido d’Arezzo (c. 990–1050) for this all-important
development. Among his many pedagogical contributions, Guido adapted and
synthesized elements of numerous notational practices in order to formulate a
standardized notational system. The significance of his contributions and
pedagogical tools forms the basis of how music notation evolved into recognized
standard notation.
54
