In this collection we will go over one of the most important organs in the human body "THE HEART"
We will talk about Physiological Properties of the Heart, The Electrical Activity of the Heart, Electrocardiography (ECG), Cardiac Output, Changes in CO, Cardiac Output Changes, Measurement of Cardiac Output, Methods for heart examination, Hemodynamics – Dynamics of Blood Circulation, REGULATION OF THE CIRCULATION, NEURAL CONTROL, REGULATION OF DIAMETER OF THE VESSELS, CARDIOVASCULAR REFLEXES (CVR), Regulation of the Coronary Blood Flow
This collection is useful for all medical students
Regulation of the Coronary Blood Flow
1)
Autoregulation:
When BP is elevated, BF initially rises – then returns toward the control level and vice
versa. Functioning mechanism in the range 70-170 mmHg.
Explanation:
Myogenic hypothesis: the response is due to altered stretch of the smooth muscle in the
wall of CA.
2) Neural: ANS
a) The sympathetic nerve fibres – NE – alpha adrenergic receptors – vasoconstriction.
b) The parasympathetic n. vagus – Ach – mild vasodilatation.
3) Humoral:
a) Oxygen – extraction of O
2
in coronary bed is nearly complete.
Dif. a-v
O2
= 12 Vol. % - the highest in the body.
A decrease in PaO
2
– vasodilation (adenosine)
b) An increase in PaCO
2
and decrease in pH – vasodilatation
Vasodilators:
- Adrenaline (epinephrine) – (beta 2 receptors)
- Adenosine – a metabolic product of ATP breakdown
- Prostaglandins: Prostacyclin (PGI
2
) and PGE
2
- Calcium antagonists ( e.g. Verapamil)
- NO -
EDRF – endothelial derived relaxing factor – a substance released by endothelial
cells – in response to increasing BF
Nitroglycerine
Vasoconstrictors
- Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
- Vasopressin
- Angiotensin II.
- Ergonovine – used for provocation f coronary spasm in dg. of insufficiency coronary
bed.
Inadequate coronary BF and coronary heart diseases
1-st situation: coronary arteries are narrowed but not completely occluded. Coronary BF is
adequate to supply the resting metabolic needs of the myocardium but when O
2
demands are
increased (exercise) – the blood supply becomes insufficient = ischemia – with a clinical
syndrome – angina pectoris.
2-nd situation: Abrupt obstruction of a coronary artery produces within 1-2 min loss of
contraction in the involved region. If sustained beyond 40 min – it produces necrosis =
acute myocardial infarction.
Cerebral Circulation
Anatomy:
Arterial inflow through 2 internal carotids + 2 vertebrals. Circle of Willis.
Venous drainage by way of the deep veins and dural sinuses – into internal
jugular veins.
Capillaries:
Number of capillaries of the brain gray matter is about 4x as great as that of
white matter. Capillaries are supported on alal sides by „glial feet“ – providing
physical support to prevent overstretching of the capillaries in case of high
pressure and to prevent transudation of fluid into the brain – against brain edema.
Difficult penetration – the blood – brain barrier
(except of some areas of the
hypothalamus, the pineal gland and the area postrema).
Function of the B-B barrier
Barrier is highly permeable to H
2
O, CO
2
, O
2
and lipid soluble substances (alcohol,
anesthetics).
Slightly permeable to the electrolytes (Na
+
, Cl
-
, K
+
)
Totally impermeable to plasma proteins and large organic molecules.
Importance: The BB barrier – maintains the constancy of the environment of the
neurons in CNS.
- protects of the brain from toxins in the blood
- prevents neurotransmitters against the escape into the circulation
Ontogeny: BB barrier develops postnatal (jaundiced newborns – penetration of the bile pigments
into CNS – kernicterus).
Clinical implication: Application of the drugs (ATB) penetrating in the BB barrier for treatment
of cerebral diseases.
Cerebral Blood Flow
CBF = Adults: 750 ml/min = 54 ml/min/100 g of brain w. = approx. 15% of CO
Children: 105 ml/min/100 g
A decrease of CBF to „adult value“ in puabertal age (sex hormones)
BF in various parts of the brain:
BF in gray matter is about 6 times that in white matter.
A marked fluctuation in regional BF with changes in activity (the movements – motor
area, the speech – sensory + motor area).
Regulation of CBF
Monro-Kellie doctrine: The sum of the volume of blood (75 ml), cerebrospinal fluid (75 ml)
and brain (1400 g) in the cranium must be relatively constant.
1) Autoregulation:
The intracranial pressure (ICP – CSF pressure) = 10 mm Hg. When ICP > 33 mm Hg – CBF
is reduced – ischemia – stimulation of the vasomotor and cardioinhibitory centers –
hypertension, bradycardia = Cushing reflex – helps to maintain CBF and to preserve
O
2
for
brain and coronary circulation.
The myogenic autoregulation – in the range 65 – 140 mm Hg.
2) Humoral regulation:
Increase in PaCO
2
decreases in PaO
2
, pH – vasodilatation
Cerebral tissue PO
2
– normal 35-40 mm Hg at PO
2
below 20 mm Hg – coma in 5 – 10 s.
Inhalation of CO
2
– increase in CBF by 75%
Inhalation of O
2
– decrease in CBF by 15 %
3) Nervous regulation:
Sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical sympathetic ganglia.
Vasoconstriction. During streuous exercise – prevention againsthigh pressure and cerebral stroke
(a vascular hemorrhage intothe brain).
Parasympathetic innervation: n. facialis. Vasodilatation. Mild importance.
Circulation in Skeletal Muscles
Flow – during rest 3-4 ml/min/100g
- during exercise – the increase more than 20-fold
Regulation
1) Local:
Mechanical: Muscle contractions → the decrease in BF (the importance rhythmic
contractions). Between contractions – BF is increased.
Temperature: the increase - vasodilation
2) Humoral:
Vasodilators: Hypoxia, hypercapnia, lactic acid, K
+
,acetylcholine, epinephrine
Vasoconstrictor: Norepinephrine
3) Nervous control of muscle blood flow
- Sympathetic NA system – vasoconstriction
- Special – Sympathetic cholinergic system – vasodilation (activation before the
start of muscular exercise)
The Skin Circulation
Anatomy: Blood vessels in the fatty subcutaneous tissue.-
Important for the thermoregulation:
- venous plexus supplied by inflow of blood from the skin
capillaries
- arteriovenous anastomoses (in hands, feet, ears)
The Skin Blood Flow
F = 250 ml/min = 1-3 ml/min/100 g = 5% of CO – at rest
F = 150 ml/min/100 g – in response to thermal stimuli
Blood is shunted through the anastomoses.
Higher skin BF causes the conduction of the heat from the core to the skin – higher radiation of
the heat.
Flow of blood to the skin is a most effective heat transfer from the body core to the skin.
Regulation of the skin BF
Autoregulation
Nervous: Sympathetic nerves: The increase of the sympathetic nerve traffic –
- vasoconstriction and vice versa. Vasoconstrictory tone.
Local axon reflexes:
Impulses initiated in sensory nerves (by injury) are relayed antidromically down by other
branches of the sensory nerve fiber. The only one situation – antidromic conduction.
Humoral: - Histamine and H-like substances – H
1
– receptors – vasodilatatioin
- Bradykinin – sweat glands – kalikrein – effects on plasma proteins – bradykinin –
vasodilatation
- Serotonin, NE – vasoconstriction
Tests of the skin vascular reactibility
A) White reaction: the mechanical stimulation (pointed object is drawn lightly over the skin) –
a pale line – due to contractions of the precapillary sphincters (in 10-15 s).
B) Tripple response: the skin attacked more strongly
1) Red reaction (in 10 s) – capillary dilatation
2) Swelling (local edema) increased permeability of the capillaries – histamine, H-
substances
3) Difuse reddening around the injury – arterial dilatation – axon reflexes.
Pulmonary Circulation
Morphology:
Circulation in series to the systemic circulation. The pulmonary vessels are
short and have large diameter.The walls are thin and distensible.
Physiology
Flow: CO RV – 5.5 l/min; Velocity – 40 cm/s;
BF – is much more pulsatile than is systemic circulation (low arteriolar resistance)
Ventilation/Perfusion Ratio
Differences in various parts of the lungs.
Pressure: PA = 25/10 mm Hg. Mean = 15 mm Hg.
Pulmonary capillary pressure = 7-10 mm Hg.
Resistance: low – 2-3 mm/l/min
Volume of blood: 1 l of the blood in pulmonary bed – only about 75-100 ml is in the pulmonary
capillaries. SV = 70 ml – all the capillary blood is replaced at each heart beat.
The increase of the volume after deep inspirium, in horizontal position. Reservoir function.
Distribution of blood flow in pulmonary circulation
The hydrostatic pressure of the blood within the pulmonary capillaries influences BF in different
regions of the lungs. At the top of the lungs is little flow – in the lowest point in the lungs is max.