In this collection we will go over one of the most important organs in the human body
The kidney
You will learn about Nephron Structure, Renal Circulation, Glomerular Structure, Aldosterone and ADH with alot of interesting images
This collection is useful for all medical students
Kidney
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Overview of Renal Function
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Anatomy/Function of the Kidney
• Structure/Function
– 1% of body mass
– 25% of cardiac output
– Passes total blood volume
every 4-5 minutes
– Filters 180 l per day and
reabsorbs 178.5 l of it
– Produces 1.5 l of acidic
(pH~6) urine per day
– 5% increase in filtration
would generate 9 l urine per
day!
– Regulation of kidney
ensures that this does not
happen.
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Nephron Structure
• Closed end of tubule forms a bowl for
the glomerulus
• Glomerulus is extension of capillaries,
creates ultrafiltrate of blood that passes
to to Bowman’s capsule
• Urine passes through collecting duct to
renal pelvis
• Tubule
– One-cell thick
– Proximal tubule
– Loop of Henle
– Distal tubule
• 1 million nephrons/kidney
Kidney
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Osmoregulatory Organs:
Prototypical Transport Systems and the
Mammalian Kidney
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Transport Systems: Prototype
Internal,
Interstitial
space (basal
surface)
External,
Lumen
(apical
surface)
ATP
ADP
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Transport Systems: Specific Example
• ATPase removes Na
+
and absorbs K
+
• K
+
diffuses and crosses into tubular lumen through
special channels
• Net K transporter, driven by ATP-ase
Net K
+
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Na
+
Transport
Passive
cotransport
Passive
cotransport
Active
transport
Channels
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
H
+
transport driven by Na
+
transport
Passive
Antiporter
Proton
Production
CO
2
+ H
2
0
HCO
3
-
H
+
CA
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Functional Overview
• Contents:
– Water + urea, NaCL, KCL, phosphates, etc.
– Color and odor product of diet, e.g.,
asparagus
• Process:
– Filter everything out (and take back what is
worth keeping)
– Reabsorption of water and salts
– Secretion of additional unwanted
substances
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Renal Circulation
• Afferent arteriole
• Glomerulus
– 10% of blood crosses to tubule
– 100 ml/minutes
• Efferent arteriole
• Secondary capillaries
– Loops: vasa recta
• Veins
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Nephron Functional Overview
• Most water and minerals
taken out of the filtrate
• Each region of tubule has
different function
• “Renal clearance”
– Amount of plasma from
which a substance is
completely
removed
from the body [ml/min]
– Function of filtration,
reabsorption, and
secretion
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Example: Glucose Regulation
• Normal glucose clearance
is zero (i.e., no net loss)
• Filtration is complete
• Reabsorption complete (to
a limit of about 320 mg/
min)
• Clearance increases for
excess plasma glucose
• Diabetics have low
reabsorption and can
accumulate glucose in
urine
Normal glucose
concentration
Limit of
reabsorption
320
Kidney
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Detailed Passage Through the Nephron
1. Glomerular (filtration)
2. Proximal (reabsorption)
3. Loop of Henle (concentration)
4. Distal (reabsorption/secretion)
5. Collecting Duct (reabsorption/
secretion)
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Glomerular Structure
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Glomerular Filtration
• Filtrate excludes only red blood
cells and large proteins
• Rate depends on:
– Hydrostatic pressures
– Colloid osmotic pressure
– Hydraulic permeability
• Net pressure is +10 mm Hg
• Permeability very high
– Capillaries fenestrated
– Filtration slits in glomerulus
+10
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Regulation of Filtration
Goal: maintain constant filtration under
variations in arterial pressure
– Myogenic autoregulation: rise in blood
pressure causes first stretch, then
contraction of afferent arteriole
– Osmotic autogregulation
• Macula densa: Sensor cells for osmolarity
and flow of distal tubule; release
substances to control afferent arterial flow
• Granular cells control smooth muscle by
releasing renin
– Central regulation:
• Sympathetic innervation of afferent
arteriole
• Responds to blood loss (constriction) and
hypertension (dilation)
• Also causes constriction of parts of
glomerulus to further reduce filtration
• Powerful mechanism, can override
autoregulation
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Renin-Angiotensin System
• Renin, enzyme released from the granular cells
by
– reduced renal blood pressure
– reduced solute delivery to distal tubule
– sympathetic stimulation
• Angiotensin I, released from the kidneys by
– rise in Renin
• Angiotensin II, result of Angiotensin I cleavage by
– ACE
• Angiotensin II causes
– at low levels, constriction of efferent arterioles, raises
glomerular filtration
– at higher levels constriction of both efferent and afferent
arterioles, reduces glomerular filtration
– increase reabsorption of Na
+
(and water) in distal tubule
– release of aldosterone (adrenal cortex) and vasopressin
(pituitary) which increases reabsorption of Na
+
and water in
distal tubule
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Proximal Tube Reabsorption
• 70% of salts reabsorbed
– Active pumping (via K/Na pump
on basolateral)
– Water and Cl
+
follow Na
+
passively (and perhaps co-
transport)
– Glucose and amino acids follow
in co-transport
– Other substances concentrated
in filtrate
• By loop of Henle
– 75% of filtrate reabsorbed
– Iso-osmotic with cells/plasma
(300 mosm/L)
– Phosphates, Ca
2+
, and other
electrolytes reabsorbed as
needed
Passive
cotransport
Passive
cotransport
Active transport
Channels
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Proximal Tube Secretion
• Organic anions (OA
-
)
– K/Na pump creates Na+ gradient for
exchanger
– Non-specific mechanism for many
OA’s, both endogenous and
exogenous
– Drugs can alter transport through
competitive binding
– Co-administration of secreted ions
with a drug can slow secretion
(removal) of the drug because they
can compete with the drug.
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Loop of Henle
• Descending limb
– High passive H
2
O transport
– Interstitial osmolarity climbs (see
below)
– Thin cells
– Almost no active salt transport, low
salt permeability
• Thin ascending segments
– Highly permeable to NaCl
– Very low permeability to H
2
O
– No active salt transport
• Thick ascending limb
– Active transport of NaCl
– Low H
2
O permeability
– Reduces osmolarity
Concentration of Urine
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Distal tubule
• Reabsorption:
– Na
+
, Cl
-
, HCO3
-
– Active transport of NaCl
– Water follows salts (permeability controlled
by ADH)
• Secretion:
– H
+
, NH
3
, K
+
– K
+
• Occurs when elevated in the body
• Na/K pumps into tubular cells, leaks
into tubule through channels
• Regulation/Feedback
– Distal tubule is close to glomerulus so
regulation based on osmolarity in tubule
– Concentrates urine
– Salt transport under endocrine control
‒ A
ldosterone: enhanced Na
+
reabsorption
and K
+
secretion
Adjustment of urine content
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Collecting Duct
• Water permeable
– Permeability controlled by ADH through
cAMP signaling that increases aquaporin
formation
– Interstitial space is hypertonic (mostly from
NaCl and urea)
• Secretion of K
+
, H
+
, NH
3
• Reabsorption of Na
+
, Cl
-
, HCO
3
-
– Na
+
by active transport
– Regulated by aldosterone
– Determines water movement and urine
concentration
• Reabsorption of urea
– End of duct very permeable to urea
– Regulated by ADH by increase in urea
transporters
Final concentrating of urine
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Concentration of Urine
• Ability to concentrate urine depends
on
– Length of loop of Henle (kangaroo
rat has very long one)
– Gradient of osmolarity
– Countercurrent mechanisms to
maintain osmotic gradient (see
below)
• Salt glands (e.g., marine birds)
– Active salt transport via Na
+
/K
+
pump and Na
+
/Cl
-
cotransport
– 2-3 times blood osmolarity
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
-
+
-
Aldosterone and ADH
• Aldosterone:
– Releases from adrenal cortex
– Increases Na
+
reabsorption
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
– Also called vasopressin
– Released from pituitary in
response to angiotensin II,
osmotic and blood pressures
– Increase water reabsorption
• Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)
– Released from atrium in
response to pressure
– Inhibits release of renin and
ADH to increase urine
production
+
ACE
Inhibitors
ADH
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Osmotic Pressures
Baroreceptors
In
cr
ea
se
d
w
ate
r
re
ab
so
rp
ti
o
n
Alcohol
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Countercurrent Multiplier
• Loop with active
transporters between the
arms loops
• Leads to cumulative
concentration increase
• Requires:
– Active Transport
between arms
– Constant flow into loop
• Concentration gradient
along the entire arm is
greater than between
arms.
• Passive system reduces
the gradient, e.g.,
reducing heat loss to the
heat sink.
Active
Passive
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Countercurrents in the Kidney
1) Active transport of salt
•
Increased osmolarity
•
Lower water permeability
2) Osmotic passive transport of water
•
Low NaCl, urea permeability
3) Passive diffusion of urea
•
Only place with high urea
permeability
4) Osmotic diffusion of water
•
Produces high osmolarity
filtrate and bottom of loop
5) Diffusion of salt
•
Low water permeability
•
Produces low osmolarity filtrate
at top of loop
•
Overall effect is concentration
of urine
D
rive
n
by
act
ive
tra
nsp
ort
o
f N
aC
l
D
rive
n
by
pa
ssi
ve
di
ffu
si
on
o
f u
re
a
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Counter Currents: Role of Vasa Recta
• Vasa recta parallel to
loop
• Counter current
mechanism plays key
role in maintaining strong
blood flow without
disrupting osmolarity
gradient
Bioengineering 6000 CV Physiology
Kidney
Urine Production Summary
• Contents:
– Water + urea, NsCL, KCL, phosphates, etc.
– Color and odor product of diet, e.g.,
asparagus
• Process:
– Filter everything out (and take back what is
worth keeping)
– Reabsorption of water and salts
– Secretion of additional unwanted
substances